What is comprehension?
Comprehension involves responding to, interpreting, analysing and evaluating texts. It involves utilising lower order reading processes (including decoding and vocabulary knowledge) and higher order processes (including relation of text content to schema and conscious controllable processing) to understand concepts and ideas from text. (DET, 2009).
According to Winch, Johnston, March, Ljungdahl and Holliday (2010, p. 5), ‘reading is a purposeful thinking act that can be described as bringing meaning to and taking meaning from text'. Students need to know that ‘the purpose of reading is to make meaning’, not just ‘getting the words right’ (The First Steps program in Western Australia, 1994 in Winch, p.13). Teaching Comprehension Strategies is really teaching children to think (Konza, 2011). It is important to note that ‘reading is not natural, unlike sight, hearing, cognition or the development of language’, so reading skills need to be ‘explicitly taught, so teachers should emphasize them in every aspect of the school curriculum throughout the earliest instruction in kindergarten, as well as the early and middle school years’. (Bender & Larkin, p.9) Comprehension strategies are an integral part of this instruction. The end goal is to create a reader with effective problem solving skills. These methods are based in cognitivist theory. The teacher models and guides the strategy, and their expert knowledge to the students, guiding the student towards proficiency. (Harris & Pressley, 1991)
Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". (Winch et al, Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences.
Different strategies can be used before, during and after reading...
Before Reading:
Use Prior Knowledge to think about the subject. Use questioning to elicit and activate this prior knowledge.
Discuss any other texts about the same topic - use this opportunity for students to practice their new vocabulary if relevant.
Make predictions about the probable meaning of the text based on the title and illustrations.
Preview the text by skimming and scanning to get an overall sense of the meaning.
Introduce new vocabulary, especially those words that will be crucial to understanding the text. (Burns, Griffin and Snow, 1999 in Konza 2011)
During Reading Aloud:
Monitor understanding by questioning, thinking about and reflecting on the ideas and information provided in the text.
Emphasise new words that were introduced before reading.
Read the story, or meaningful sections of the text without too many interruptions so students can grasp the sequence of events and become attuned to the more literate style of written language. Questions before and after reading are more effective and less intrusive than questions during reading. (beals, De Temple & Dickinson,1994, in Konza, 2011)
Encourage children to visualise the story. This can be demonstrated by thinking aloud.
During Independent Reading:
Help students make connections.
Encourage students to monitor their understanding of the material. They can use post-its to flag words that are interesting, unknown or provoke a question.
Point out relevant details in the illustrations.
After Reading:
Reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.
Relate what they have read to their own experience and knowledge (make connections).
Clarify their understanding of the text.
Teach students how to use resources such as dictionaries and glossaries.
Teach students to identify key words in a passage (the words that explain who, what, when, where..) When they are able to do that consistently, teach them note-taking and other summarisation strategies.
Extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.
Teach students how to use graphic organisers such as story maps, flow charts, etc.
(Adapted from Konza, 2011, Research into Practice and The Australian Curriculum: Comprehension in Context, retrieved from http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/northernadelaide/files/links/AC_comprehension.pdf)
What affects Comprehension? What does the research say?
Comprehension is affected by:
Ability to decode the text
Purpose for reading and level of comprehension required
Reader’s interest and motivation
Reader’s field knowledge including vocabulary
Reader’s linguistic knowledge of grammar
Text layout and reading pathways
Reader’s ability to check understanding ( use of metacognitive strategies)
Reader’s ability to locate point of miscomprehension and adjust strategies.
Short term and working memory
Reader's oral language
Reader's phonological processing abilities
Comprehension involves responding to, interpreting, analysing and evaluating texts. It involves utilising lower order reading processes (including decoding and vocabulary knowledge) and higher order processes (including relation of text content to schema and conscious controllable processing) to understand concepts and ideas from text. (DET, 2009).
According to Winch, Johnston, March, Ljungdahl and Holliday (2010, p. 5), ‘reading is a purposeful thinking act that can be described as bringing meaning to and taking meaning from text'. Students need to know that ‘the purpose of reading is to make meaning’, not just ‘getting the words right’ (The First Steps program in Western Australia, 1994 in Winch, p.13). Teaching Comprehension Strategies is really teaching children to think (Konza, 2011). It is important to note that ‘reading is not natural, unlike sight, hearing, cognition or the development of language’, so reading skills need to be ‘explicitly taught, so teachers should emphasize them in every aspect of the school curriculum throughout the earliest instruction in kindergarten, as well as the early and middle school years’. (Bender & Larkin, p.9) Comprehension strategies are an integral part of this instruction. The end goal is to create a reader with effective problem solving skills. These methods are based in cognitivist theory. The teacher models and guides the strategy, and their expert knowledge to the students, guiding the student towards proficiency. (Harris & Pressley, 1991)
Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". (Winch et al, Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences.
Different strategies can be used before, during and after reading...
Before Reading:
Use Prior Knowledge to think about the subject. Use questioning to elicit and activate this prior knowledge.
Discuss any other texts about the same topic - use this opportunity for students to practice their new vocabulary if relevant.
Make predictions about the probable meaning of the text based on the title and illustrations.
Preview the text by skimming and scanning to get an overall sense of the meaning.
Introduce new vocabulary, especially those words that will be crucial to understanding the text. (Burns, Griffin and Snow, 1999 in Konza 2011)
During Reading Aloud:
Monitor understanding by questioning, thinking about and reflecting on the ideas and information provided in the text.
Emphasise new words that were introduced before reading.
Read the story, or meaningful sections of the text without too many interruptions so students can grasp the sequence of events and become attuned to the more literate style of written language. Questions before and after reading are more effective and less intrusive than questions during reading. (beals, De Temple & Dickinson,1994, in Konza, 2011)
Encourage children to visualise the story. This can be demonstrated by thinking aloud.
During Independent Reading:
Help students make connections.
Encourage students to monitor their understanding of the material. They can use post-its to flag words that are interesting, unknown or provoke a question.
Point out relevant details in the illustrations.
After Reading:
Reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.
Relate what they have read to their own experience and knowledge (make connections).
Clarify their understanding of the text.
Teach students how to use resources such as dictionaries and glossaries.
Teach students to identify key words in a passage (the words that explain who, what, when, where..) When they are able to do that consistently, teach them note-taking and other summarisation strategies.
Extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.
Teach students how to use graphic organisers such as story maps, flow charts, etc.
(Adapted from Konza, 2011, Research into Practice and The Australian Curriculum: Comprehension in Context, retrieved from http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/northernadelaide/files/links/AC_comprehension.pdf)
What affects Comprehension? What does the research say?
Comprehension is affected by:
Ability to decode the text
Purpose for reading and level of comprehension required
Reader’s interest and motivation
Reader’s field knowledge including vocabulary
Reader’s linguistic knowledge of grammar
Text layout and reading pathways
Reader’s ability to check understanding ( use of metacognitive strategies)
Reader’s ability to locate point of miscomprehension and adjust strategies.
Short term and working memory
Reader's oral language
Reader's phonological processing abilities
Self-awareness of one's own internal thought process is termed 'metacognition', and it is also applied to reading. Teaching Comprehension skills is teaching children how to be aware of and use their cognitive and meta-cognitive processes.
Based on a review of the research, Duke and Pearson (2002, p. 208) suggested a framework for comprehension strategy instruction, based on Albert Bruner’s (1990) notion of ‘scaffolding’ or ‘gradual release of responsibility’(GRR). This involves teachers initially explaining and modelling strategies. Over time, they give students more and more responsibility for using the strategies until they can use them independently. This technique is generally associated with the idea of self-regulation and reflects social cognitive theory. (Duke and Pearson, 2002)
How to use the strategies:
Based on a review of the research, Duke and Pearson (2002, p. 208) suggested a framework for comprehension strategy instruction, based on Albert Bruner’s (1990) notion of ‘scaffolding’ or ‘gradual release of responsibility’(GRR). This involves teachers initially explaining and modelling strategies. Over time, they give students more and more responsibility for using the strategies until they can use them independently. This technique is generally associated with the idea of self-regulation and reflects social cognitive theory. (Duke and Pearson, 2002)
How to use the strategies:
- Describe the strategy. Students should gain an understanding of the strategy and it's purpose; when and how it can be used. (Beckman, 2002)
- Model and scaffold effective comprehension. Instruction needs to be explicitly demonstrated, and the student needs to learn how to use the strategies in flexible ways. (Cartwright, 2006)
- Give students time to practice and develop skills. The teacher monitors, provides cues and gives feedback. The aim is for the strategies to become automatic for the student so they don't have to 'think' too much about using them. (Beckman, 2002)
- Choose appropriate reading and reading groups for students
- Use authentic texts in multi-modal forms. Use music, graphic novels, picture books, chapter books, story creation websites and so on.
- Use a variety of genres. Students need instruction in using comprehension strategies in both fiction and non-fiction.
The strategies students need to use to interpret text vary depending on the genre. Teachers need to
explicitly teach students how to vary their strategies. For example, predicting in fiction might involve guessing what the solution to a problem is. Predicting in non-fiction might involve predicting what the paragraph is about from a heading. (Duke & Pearson, 2002) - Write texts
- Talk about texts and their meaning
- Give students time to read (i.e., DEAR: Drop Everything and Read)
- Promote student self-monitoring and evaluation of personal strategy use. Students will be far more likely to use the strategy if they see that it works effectively for them. (Beckman, 2002)
- Allow students to collaborate to discuss texts.
Student learning increases with discussion. It is important for teachers provide opportunities for students to talk in partners or small groups about the reading. (Duke and Pearson,2002)
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This YouTube clip introduces some of the more popular Reading Comprehension Strategies (in a parody of a Justin Bieber song).
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What are the core Comprehension Strategies?
This website focusses on the 'Super Six' reading comprehension strategies. Researchers debate about what to name these strategies; however, researchers agree that all of these are important strategies that help children comprehend better (Duke and Pearson, 2002) Below are the links that describe each comprehension strategy in greater detail and provides links and practical application ideas for each one in the classroom. It is important to remember that comprehension instruction should be balanced - involving explicit instruction in specific strategies and a great deal of time and opportunity for actual reading, writing, and discussion of text. (Duke & Pearson, 2002)
Self Monitoring
Predicting
Questioning
Making Connections
Summarising
Visualising
There are a number of other strategies in the literature, some of which are referred to within the Six strategies above.
Inferring- (which is using prior knowledge, plus clues from the text to draw conclusions).
Activating Prior Knowledge - (a fundamental beginning to each lesson, mentioned in questioning)
Synthesizing -(taking what you know and putting it with new information to re-evaluate your thinking).
This website focusses on the 'Super Six' reading comprehension strategies. Researchers debate about what to name these strategies; however, researchers agree that all of these are important strategies that help children comprehend better (Duke and Pearson, 2002) Below are the links that describe each comprehension strategy in greater detail and provides links and practical application ideas for each one in the classroom. It is important to remember that comprehension instruction should be balanced - involving explicit instruction in specific strategies and a great deal of time and opportunity for actual reading, writing, and discussion of text. (Duke & Pearson, 2002)
Self Monitoring
Predicting
Questioning
Making Connections
Summarising
Visualising
There are a number of other strategies in the literature, some of which are referred to within the Six strategies above.
Inferring- (which is using prior knowledge, plus clues from the text to draw conclusions).
Activating Prior Knowledge - (a fundamental beginning to each lesson, mentioned in questioning)
Synthesizing -(taking what you know and putting it with new information to re-evaluate your thinking).
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/literacy/assets/pdf/packages/combook.pdf
How many strategies to use?
Students need access to a wide variety of strategies. Beckman (2002) suggests that good readers will effectively use multiple strategies to fully comprehend text. He also stresses that the importance and effectiveness of these depends on the individual learner and the requirements of the curriculum (Beckman, 2002). Mature and critical reading requires the coordinated and flexible use of multiple strategies. (Cartwright, 2006) Remind students that although they are focused on one particular strategy, they can and should use multiple strategies when appropriate. Each student should build a repertoire of the strategies which best suit them.
Which students to use them with?
The research has shown that many students ability to learn has been greatly improved through the direct teaching of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. As Beckman illustrates in his 2002 'Strategy Instruction', this is particularly true for students with significant learning problems - strategy instruction is crucial for them. Students with special needs in the classroom, ESL students, and gifted and talented students may benefit most from a specific method of participatory collaborative strategy instruction called Reciprocal Teaching which integrates predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarising into a collaborative process.
Students need access to a wide variety of strategies. Beckman (2002) suggests that good readers will effectively use multiple strategies to fully comprehend text. He also stresses that the importance and effectiveness of these depends on the individual learner and the requirements of the curriculum (Beckman, 2002). Mature and critical reading requires the coordinated and flexible use of multiple strategies. (Cartwright, 2006) Remind students that although they are focused on one particular strategy, they can and should use multiple strategies when appropriate. Each student should build a repertoire of the strategies which best suit them.
Which students to use them with?
The research has shown that many students ability to learn has been greatly improved through the direct teaching of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. As Beckman illustrates in his 2002 'Strategy Instruction', this is particularly true for students with significant learning problems - strategy instruction is crucial for them. Students with special needs in the classroom, ESL students, and gifted and talented students may benefit most from a specific method of participatory collaborative strategy instruction called Reciprocal Teaching which integrates predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarising into a collaborative process.